Abstract

This study explores the relationship between teachers’ sense of efficacy and their organizational commitment at colleges in Pakistan. It was conducted on a sample comprising 494 public-sector Pakistani college teachers. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) developed the teachers’ sense of efficacy scale, and John P. Meyer and Natalie J. Allen's developed organizational commitment scale (1991) was applied to collect the data. Hypotheses were tested using the Pearson Product Moment formula. The effects of the factors of the teachers’ sense of efficacy on organizational commitment were determined using the Regression Analysis. It was determined that a higher degree of teachers’ sense of efficacy enhances organizational commitment, as highlighted by a significant positive correlation between the teachers’ sense of efficacy and organizational commitment. There was a significant positive correlation between three factors of the teachers’ sense of efficacy scale and three components of organizational commitment of college teachers. It was also established that the teachers’ sense of efficacy can predict organizational commitment. The study shows that teachers’ sense of efficacy must be considered when selecting and training prospective teachers. To become efficient and effective, teaching organizations must pay considerable attention to monitoring and boosting the positive Sense of self-efficacy among their teaching staff.

Keywords: self-efficacy, teachers’ sense of efficacy, affective commitment, continuance commitment, normative commitment, organizational commitment

Introduction

Self-efficacy is determined to be a person's firm belief in their ability to organize and implement actions to reach a specific level of performance. Self-efficacy is the conviction that one has in their capabilities as an impetus for success (Bandura & National Inst of Mental Health, 1986). The construct, sense of teaching efficacy is specific to the domain of teaching and has been defined as the beliefs of teachers about their teaching competence. According to Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), teachers' self-efficacy beliefs guide them to success. While this seems to be deceptive and simple, it is a powerful idea. People who have a higher degree of self-efficacy put their potential faculties into action, try hard to keep pace with the demands of the circumstances, and accept hurdles as challenges, and consequently make a greater effort (Bandura & National Inst of Mental Health, 1986).

As Teaching is a combination of the clusters of tremendous liabilities and responsibilities, it must be assigned to those individuals who not only concur with but also enjoy these obligations and responsibilities. A teacher must believe in themselves and their capacity to incorporate positive differences into the personalities of their students. It is not confirmed to what extent this self-belief will ensure success, but not believing in oneself is certainly an impetus for failure.

The self-belief of teachers (teachers' self-efficacy or teachers' sense of efficacy) is certainly a source of resistance against the difficulties and complexities innate to the teaching profession. Personal belief in one's ability to attain a certain goal defines the choice and course of action to execute a task. A high level of self-efficacy belief is associated with high performance and the level of performance stems from the degree of commitment to the organization. Teachers' self-efficacy belief in the teaching profession may predict their level of organizational commitment. A review of literature reveals a positive correlation between occupational efficacy and organizational constructs such as job satisfaction, organizational change, and organizational commitment (Schyns, 2004; Schyns & von Collani, 2002).

Whether in a teaching organization or elsewhere, committed employees are considered valuable assets of organizations. Every year, there is substantial financial investment by organizations in training and developing human resources in organizations just to see the trained and groomed employees turning over their jobs to more lucrative options. A higher level of commitment among employees of an organization helps to bring about organizational efficiency and effectiveness, and profit for the organization. Jamieson and Richards (1996) argue that employees that are more committed to the organization contribute more to the profit-earning and improvement of the system of the organization, and help to reduce the organization's costs, as committed employees actively participate in organizational affairs. Organizational productivity is high due to having committed employees in the organization, and this is a win-win situation for both employees and the organization. The employees enjoy job security, are well trained, own the organization and become part of the organizational team, and feel pride working for the organization. Employees' commitment to the profession also has significant implications for the induction process. By identifying the key factors contributing to the commitment of employees, organizations can establish a checklist of attributes an organization must look for among job applicants during the induction and selection process, to catch and retain a more committed workforce. Jamieson and Richards (1996) further stress that post-induction strategies may be formulated to devise interventions if current development and training schemes do not improve the commitment of employees to the organization.

Self-efficacy is believed to be among the factors affecting employees' commitment to an organization, and therefore specific strategies should be devised to improve belief in self-efficacy. Theoretically, this research is rooted in Bandura's self-efficacy theory, which considers it purely a mechanistic construct. This study explores further Bandura's (1994) idea that persons with a higher level of self-efficacy belief tend to be more committed to their career choices and their employers. This study may contribute on an operational level by highlighting the significance of the constructs of self-efficacy and organizational commitment in the process of training and development.

Meyer and Allen (1984, p. 375) defined organizational commitment as "a multifactor construct that subsumes three factors of commitment in it denoted as affective, continuance and normative commitment. Affective Commitment encompasses the positive feelings of belongingness to the employing organization and its affairs." When a person has an obligation towards the employing organization, they show normative commitment and do not leave it (Allen & Meyer, 1996, p. 253). "When a person is intimidated by loss of benefits and penalties as a result of quitting the organization, he does not think to quit, it reflects Continuance Commitment" (Meyer & Allen, 1984, p. 375). When employees stay attached to the organization because they have common ambitions and goals, this attitude is denoted as affective commitment. This solely depends on their affective ownership of the organization. Those employees who have a higher level of continuance commitment try to remain with the organization because they understand that it is necessary to continue in the organization to get terminal benefits. Some employees remain committed to their employers because of normative commitment resulting from norms and compulsions (Allen & Meyer, 1990).

Employees tend to remain committed to the employing organization when the organization provides them with a conducive environment, handsome salaries, allowances, and other perks and privileges. The employees in such organizations display higher degree of continuance commitment. The reason for employees' display of the higher degree of continuance commitment is the fear of loss of all the facilities on leaving the organizations (Allen & Meyer, 1990). The teaching profession is very demanding, with the utmost level of stress and mental fatigue and a modest income. Teachers must deal with the inappropriate behaviour of students in the class and find a balance between their professional and personal obligations. Resultantly, teachers become dissatisfied and uncommitted to the employing organization. The self-belief of teachers in handling their professional duties and immaculately handling the unusual situations and behaviour of students and colleagues is termed teaching self-efficacy and is found to be higher in efficacious teachers. Higher teaching efficacy contributes toward a higher degree of teachers' commitment to a teaching organization. In the following paragraphs, several studies are summarized to support this hypothesis.

Several studies in the domain of industrial and organizational psychology have established a linkage between self-efficacy and organizational commitment. (Meyer et al. (2002) found a significant positive correlation between organizational commitment and domain-specific self-efficacy. Salami (2007) found in the Nigerian context a significant positive relationship between secondary school teachers' self-efficacy and their organizational commitment. Job satisfaction and higher general self-efficacy caused employees to have a higher level of organizational commitment. Furthermore, they were less inclined to quit the organization when compared to employees with a lower level of self-efficacy (Luthans et al., 2006).

A study by Schyns and von Collani (2002) observed a positive correlation between occupational self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Studies such as those by Chan (2004), Gundlach et al. (2003), and Salami (2007) reveal that so far the bulk of the studies focused on general self-efficacy and organizational commitment, while there is a requirement to underpin occupational self-efficacy to organizational commitment. Schyns (2001; 2004) and Schyns and von Collani (2002) dwell upon the significance of the notion of domain-specific self-efficacy for organizations.

Rathi and Rastogi's (2009) study evaluates interconnections between occupational self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and organizational commitment in Indian organizations. They observed a significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. There was a positive interdependence (not significant) between emotional intelligence and organizational behavior. A low positive correlation was observed between organizational commitment and occupational self-efficacy.

Ming-Ten Tsai et al. (2011) addressed the relationship between leadership style, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and organizational commitment in the banking sector of Taiwan. The study found a significant positive influence on a supervisor's emotional intelligence and leadership style. Supervisors with a higher level of emotional intelligence are able to exercise better leadership skills to elevate employee self-efficacy, and self-efficacy has a significant positive influence on organizational commitment.

Agu (2015) is a review-based study on work engagement, organizational commitment, self-efficacy, and organizational growth. The study concluded that if organizations want to increase the level of employee engagement, they should work to create an environment where employees want to engage, and this will lead to an increase in their self-efficacy. Human accomplishment and personal well-being are strongly associated with a sense of self-efficacy.

Akhtar Bibi et al. (2019) identified that there is correlation between various work attitudes, namely perceived organizational support, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction of teachers at special education institutions in Pakistan. They discovered a positive correlation between job satisfaction and normative and affective commitment yet noted a negative relationship between job satisfaction and continuance organizational commitment.

Osei et al. (2017) is a study conducted in Ghana which attempted to judge the mediatory effect of organizational commitment among nurses' individual mechanisms i.e., trust, ethics, justice, and self-efficacy. It was found that individual mechanisms directly affected nurses' organizational commitment and as a result organizational commitment had a significant positive effect on the self-efficacy of nurses in Ghanaian hospitals.

Erli Liu and Jiatao Huang (2019) found a positive correlation between organizational commitment and occupational self-efficacy of postgraduate students of business administration in China. Their results endorsed the understanding that the self-efficacy belief of individuals has a positive effect on their work-related attitudes, including organizational commitment.

Jordan et al. (2017) explored the interconnections of psychological empowerment, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The study concluded that Slovenia had higher rates of affective organizational commitment, while Germany had a low rate of affective organizational commitment. The rates of continuance organizational commitment were higher in Croatia and lower in the Czech Republic. The normative organizational commitment had higher rates in the Czech Republic and was lower in Austria.

Muhangi (2017) explored the relationship between self-efficacy and a variety of work attitudes, including job satisfaction and job commitment of secondary school teachers. As a result, he found a significant interconnection between self-efficacy, job commitment, and job satisfaction among secondary school teachers. The study recommends improving job commitment among secondary school teachers, and that aspects of professional competence i.e. self-efficacy and job satisfaction, should be enhanced. Khan (2017) found a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and organizational commitment. According to his study, there is a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and organizational commitment.

Chung (2019) found that collective self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between teacher efficacy and organizational commitment. He concluded that "teacher efficacy translated into a higher organizational commitment among teachers that perceive relatively higher degrees of social support in both the indirect effect through collective self-esteem and the direct effect without collective self-esteem" (p. 1).

Demir (2020) carried out a study to underscore the correlation between teachers' self-efficacy and commitment to their employing organization. He found that when teachers' self-efficacy increases, organizational commitment and job satisfaction also increase. There is a positive relationship between organizational commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, and teachers' self-efficacy. He suggested that strengthening teachers' self-efficacy perception would develop a positive attitude towards organizational commitment.

Mokhtar et al. (2021) evaluated the relationship between teachers' commitment, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction. They found that:

self-efficacy significantly mediated the relationship between primary school teachers' commitment and job satisfaction, both teachers' commitment and self-efficacy had significant and direct impacts on the job satisfaction of primary school teachers and the presence of self-efficacy enhanced teachers' commitment and improved the job satisfaction of primary school teachers. (p. 1)

There are fewer studies relating teachers' self-efficacy with organizational commitment in the Pakistani context. Therefore, to address the issue with empirical evidence on this very topic, the present study explored the relationship between college teachers' sense of efficacy and organizational commitment in Pakistan.

Methodology

Research objectives

The study objectively focuses on the following points:

1. To explore the role of college teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in the promotion of organizational commitment to the teaching organization.
2. To investigate the relationship between the teachers' sense of efficacy and organizational commitment.

Research hypotheses

The devised null hypotheses to achieve the objectives were as follows:

1. There is no significant relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy and the organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan.
2. There is no significant relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy and the three factors of organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan.
3. There is no significant effect of teachers' sense of efficacy on the organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan.

Conceptual framework of the study

Based on these hypotheses, this study was planned to underpin the relationship between teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and organizational commitment at Pakistani colleges. This relationship is best narrated in the figure below as it was explored in the study.

Figure 1
Relationship between self-efficacy factors and organizational commitment factors

Source: author's own work.

Research design

The study was designed as a survey and there was no manipulation introduced; the findings were narrated as were found resultantly.

The population of the study

The study took male and female teachers at public sector colleges in the Pakistani Punjab province as its population. These teachers taught at Intermediate, Bachelor, and Post-graduate colleges.

Study sample

The sample contains 494 college teachers, both male and female, of Intermediate, Bachelor, and Postgraduate colleges of the provincial government of the Punjab Province of Pakistan. These colleges were in ten major cities in Punjab, Pakistan. The sample comprised 256 men and 238 women. The sample was selected using a convenient sampling technique. A total of thirty colleges were earmarked to collect data, which included fifteen colleges of men and the fifteen colleges of women. Twenty teachers from each college were asked to fill in questionnaires, and in total 600 sets of questionnaires were floated to these teachers. 494 questionnaires were collected filled which include 256 men and 238 women teachers.

Research instruments

The following instruments were administered to measure teachers' sense of efficacy and their organizational commitment to the organization.

Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES)

There are many measures of self-efficacy available, but the researchers adopted the teachers' sense of efficacy Scale developed by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001). This scale is comprehensive, reliable, and easy to administer. It is also denoted as the "Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES)." This scale has a long (24 items) and a short version (12 items). In this study, the long form was applied. Every item in the scale is gauged on the 7-point Likert scale and the responses are ranged from 'nothing' to a great deal. Three different types of factors were identified by the authors of the TSES, including efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional strategies, and efficacy in classroom management. Each sub-scale contains eight items. This scale attempts to cover the multifarious nature of efficacy beliefs of teachers comprehensively and does not become too specific or too general. The total reliability reported by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) was calculated at 0.88 using Cronbach's alpha. This scale was adopted and used for the study with the permission of Dr Anita Woolfolk Hoy.

Scaling the organizational commitment

The organizational commitment scale comprising three components was developed by Meyer and Allen (1991; 1997). In this scale, there are three types (components) of commitment, which are affective, continuance, and normative commitment. They defined affective commitment as an emotional connection of an employee to their organization. When an employee is intimidated due to fear of losing their job, they remain with the organization, which results in their continuance commitment to the employing organization. When an employee considers the norms of society and profession and feels that they have an obligation towards the organization, they are referred to as a normatively committed employee of that organization, and this is labelled as normative commitment. The organizational commitment scale measures three factors of commitment. This scale was adopted with the permission of the authors of this study. This contains eighteen items in total, with six items dedicated to measuring each component of the commitment and measuring the accumulated organizational commitment of an individual. Allen and Meyer assessed the scale, and the reliability alpha indices they reported were 0.87 and 0.84 on two different occasions.

Data collection

In-person visits were paid to each college for the administration of questionnaires to teachers in ten major cities of the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Prior permission was sought from the college administration to conduct the study. The aims and objectives of the study were communicated to the participants and the colleges' administration. The completed questionnaires were made part of the data. The data used in this study comes partially from the author's broader research, conducted to identify the relationship between college teachers' emotional intelligence and organizational commitment at colleges in Pakistan (Shafiq, 2013; Shafiq & Rana, 2016).

Data analysis and interpretation

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient Formula was administered on data to determine the correlation between the teaching self-efficacy of teachers and their organizational commitment. To further determine the magnitude of the difference that the self-efficacy of teachers made with regard to the three factors of organizational commitment, Regression Analysis was used. Table 1 shows the statistics obtained when the above-mentioned tests were performed.

A moderately significant positive correlation value of r = 0.539 is noted as shown in Table 1 between overall teachers' efficacy beliefs and the overall organizational commitment. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between sense of teaching efficacy and organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan is rejected.

The hypothesis "there is no significant relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy and the three factors of organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan" is also rejected because the relationship between self-efficacy and the affective commitment factor of organizational commitment was found to be significantly positive, with a value of r = 0.459. Teachers' efficacy beliefs in teaching were also determined to be significantly positive concerning normative commitment with r = 0.451.

Table 1
Matrix of correlations among the variables and their factors

Note. N = 494, SD = Standard Deviation, **p < 0.01.
Source: author's own work.

The relationship between teachers' efficacy in teaching beliefs and continuance commitment was found to be significantly positive, with a value of r = 0.215, a little lower than the value for affective and normative commitment factors.

There were three factors on the teachers' sense of efficacy scale denoted by Efficacy in Student Engagement (ESE), Efficacy in Classroom Management (ECM), and Efficacy in Instructional Strategies (EIS). There were also three types of organizational commitment, namely Affective Commitment (AC), Continuance Commitment (CC), and Normative Commitment (NC). Correlations were also found between the factors of teachers' self-efficacy and the types of organizational commitment; the results are given in Table 1. There was a significant positive correlation between all the factors on the teachers' self-efficacy scale and three types of organizational commitment, and the corresponding values of Pearson "r" are given in Table 1.

To test the third hypothesis of the study, which was "there is no significant effect of teachers' sense of efficacy on the organizational commitment of teachers at colleges in Pakistan, regression analysis was used. The regression analysis confirmed the extent of the effect that the self-efficacy beliefs of teachers had on each factor of their organizational commitment and the magnitude of the effect on overall organizational commitment was determined.

More than 29% of variance was identified in teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in their overall organizational commitment to teaching organizations. It was also found that self-efficacy can influence the affective commitment of college teachers with a variance of more than 21%. Variance of only 4.6% was found when conducting the regression analysis, which shows that teachers' sense of efficacy can only marginally predict their continuance commitment to the employing organizations. A significant effect of self-efficacy beliefs of college teachers on their normative commitment was observed as the magnitude of variance calculated using the regression analysis was more than 20%. The results of the regression analysis are given in Table 2.

Table 2
Effect of self-efficacy on organizational commitment and its three components

Note. N = 494.
Source: author's own work.

The regression analysis shows that the independent variable i.e., self-efficacy, is effective in making a significant difference to the dependent variable i.e., the organizational commitment of teachers. However, the magnitude of the effect of self-efficacy on overall organizational commitment and two of its factors (affective and normative commitment) was medium. The effect of teachers' self-efficacy on continuance commitment was determined to be weaker, i.e., 4.6%.

Discussion

The findings revealed a significant positive relationship between college teachers' sense of teaching efficacy and their organizational commitment in the Pakistani context. It is evident from the results that there is a positive and significant relationship between the self-efficacy of teachers and their commitment to employing organizations. Teachers possessing a higher sense of teaching efficacy are found to be more committed to the teaching organization, and thus the hypothesis "there is no relationship between college teachers' sense of efficacy and organizational commitment" was rejected. The results of the study are in line with Agu (2015), Bibi et al., (2019), Chung (2019), Coladarci (1992), Demir (2020), Jordan et al. (2017), Judge and Bono (2001), McDonald and Siegall (1992), Mokhtar et al. (2021), Muhangi (2017), O'Neill and Mone (1998), Osei et al., 2017, Rathi and Rastogi (2009), Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990), Tsai et al. (2011), and Trott (1996). The findings of this study are evidently aligned with the idea that teachers with a higher sense of teaching efficacy focus on the subject matter more and attain proficiency and command which leads to better choices and application of teaching methods and strategies. These types of teachers better understand students' demands and needs and control them well and are found to be more committed to the teaching organization. All of the above-quoted studies supported the notion that teachers who had better teaching efficacy beliefs displayed a higher degree of commitment to an employing organization and the job of teaching. They do not leave when faced with negative circumstances in performing the job of teaching because they believe in themselves and that they can overcome challenging situations posed by the profession of teaching. Teachers with positive self-efficacy enjoy facing challenging situations as they have the potential to overcome the challenges. They are confident people with the self-belief to produce the desired effects and are capable team members able to drive organizations toward the attainment of organizational objectives.

Furthermore, a positive relationship has been demonstrated between factors of teachers' sense of efficacy and the corresponding commitment factors, namely an affective, continuance, and normative commitment. A moderate relationship was found between factors of teachers' sense of efficacy and the affective and normative commitment of college teachers. Whereas there was a weak relationship between factors of teachers' sense of efficacy scale and continuance commitment of college teachers, the null hypothesis "there is no significant relationship between factors of self-efficacy and the three components of organizational commitment of college teachers" was rejected based on the findings.

It is pertinent to discuss other variables which might mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and organizational commitment of teachers as highlighted by Osei et al. (2017): these are trust, ethics, and organizational justice. These individual and organizational mechanisms and many others like them are not studied in the present study. If the above-identified variables had been studied here in combination with the variable of teachers' self-efficacy, the Model R Square values in Table 2 against total self-efficacy and teachers' overall organizational commitment and its three factors might have been much improved from a medium to a stronger degree. Future studies are recommended on the variables which effect organizational commitment to fill the gap in understanding the mechanics of organizational commitment in teaching organizations.

Conclusions

The findings of the study show a significant positive relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy and teachers' organizational commitment. The teachers' sense of efficacy also effects their organizational commitment to employing organizations, i.e., colleges. teachers' sense of efficacy also effects the three components of organizational commitment, namely affective, continuance, and normative commitment. engagement of students, which is a factor of teachers' sense of efficacy, increases teachers' organizational commitment. Teachers who have a greater sense of teaching efficacy will be able to devise and adapt effective instructional strategies and methods of teaching which may have a positive effect on their organizational commitment. Teachers who believe that they can manage their classes well will be more effective and organizationally committed, and their greater sense of teaching efficacy in classroom management skills reflects a higher degree of commitment to the organization.

Because teachers' greater sense of teaching efficacy is a vital aspect of their professional and personal motivation, and it has a positive effect on their organizational commitment, it must be considered as one of the vital aspects of a teacher's personality during the selection process as well as in gauging their organizational commitment after joining the organization. To attain efficiency and effectiveness by retaining organizationally committed teachers in educational organizations, self-efficacy beliefs of teachers should never be weakened and the administration should take positive steps in monitoring and inculcating a positive sense of efficacy among the teaching staff.

Suggestions for further studies

As the results of this study underpin the significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and organizational commitment of college teachers in Pakistan therefore, further studies are recommended to investigate various ways and means to inculcate positive Self-efficacy beliefs in prospective and in-service teachers of different education levels, countries, and cultures, to minimize the high turnover of employees of the teaching organizations of modern times.

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